2.10. Turns.

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2.10.1. Turns involve coordination of all three controls: ailerons, rudder, and elevator. A shallow turn is a turn of approximately 30 degrees of bank or less. A steep turn is a turn of approximately 45-60 degrees of bank or greater.

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2.10.1.1. Prior to turning, visually clear in the direction of the turn. Simultaneously apply coordinated pressure to ailerons and the rudder in the direction of the turn. The roll rate is governed by the amount and rate of pressure applied. Hold control pressure constant until at the desired angle of bank (AOB). Use outside references and the flight instruments to set bank angle.

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2.10.1.2. As bank is introduced, a point on the windscreen directly in front of the pilot appears to pivot on the horizon. This is often referred to as the “bug” spot. To maintain level flight, the bug spot should remain on or near the horizon throughout the turn. As bank increases, increase back pressure to compensate for the loss of vertical lift and raise the bug spot to slightly above the horizon. Dragging the TAS antenna, located just in front of the windscreen, across or slightly below the horizon (depending on seat height) is another T-6 reference commonly used to maintain a level turn. In shallow turns, the increase in pitch attitude required is small. As bank increases, the pitch increase required is more pronounced. For steep turns, a power increase is also required to maintain airspeed.

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2.10.1.3. Just as in straight-and-level flight, outside references can be found in any direction. The best outside reference for measuring bank is the angle of the horizon across the windscreen. Approaching the desired AOB, return the ailerons and rudder to neutral but maintain the increased pitch attitude to maintain constant altitude.

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2.10.1.4. To correct nose-low (or nose-high) attitudes in a steep turn, reduce (or increase) the AOB with coordinated aileron and rudder pressure. Simultaneously adjust back pressure to raise (or lower) the nose to the desired pitch attitude. After attaining the desired attitude, reestablish the desired AOB. Cross-check the VSI to detect nose-low (or nose- high) attitudes.

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2.10.1.5. Rollout from a turn is much the same as the entry except control pressure is applied in the opposite direction. Apply aileron and rudder pressure in the direction of the rollout (i.e., toward the high wing). As bank decreases, release elevator pressure smoothly to maintain altitude. The bug spot should remain on the horizon. With decreasing bank, the effects of centrifugal force and loss of vertical lift are reduced.

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2.10.1.6. Because the aircraft normally turns when in a bank, start the rollout before the desired heading. The aircraft continues to turn during the rollout until the wings return to the level position. The steeper the bank, the more lead is required to roll out on a desired heading. As a guide during composite flight in visual conditions, use a 10-degree lead point for turns with 45 degrees or greater bank. Use a 5-degree lead point for turns with less than 45 degrees of bank.

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2.10.2. Posture in the aircraft is very important. Do not constantly lean forward, backward, or side-to-side because this changes the relative position of aircraft references with respect to outside references. With a consistent position in the cockpit, outside references remain the same.

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2.10.3. A precision turn consists of a constant AOB and a definite amount of turn. To make a precise 90-degree turn, align the aircraft with a road or section line on the ground, and turn perpendicular to it. In the absence of a ground reference, pick a point on the horizon directly off a wingtip.

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2.10.4. A common error is to treat a steep turn differently from a shallow turn. The aerodynamic effects are more pronounced in a steep turn, but ultimately the effects are the same as in any turn. The difference between steep turns and shallow turns is the amount of back stick pressure and power needed to maintain level flight. Rapid and abrupt control inputs often result in excessive back pressure (causing a climb) or insufficient back pressure (causing a dive).

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