5.17. Landing Irregularities. Airspeed in the flare is just above stall airspeed. Even at slow airspeeds, the elevator is still very effective. Any abrupt change in pitch could result in a balloon, a bounce, or even a stall. When any of these conditions are encountered, apply MAX power, adjust the pitch attitude, and initiate a go-around if it is unsafe to continue the landing. If power is applied and the aircraft continues to settle, do not try to hold it off by raising the nose above the landing attitude. A touch down with too high of a nose attitude could result in a tail strike, which can occur at approximately 13-15 degrees nose high. Hold the landing attitude and let the aircraft touch down. MAX power cushions the contact. In case of a hard landing, do not raise the gear.

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5.17.1. High Flare.

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5.17.1.1. Cause. Roundout performed too early or with excessive pitch up.

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5.17.1.2. Effects. Airspeed decay and hard or long landing.

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5.17.1.2.1. Possible premature touchdown of nose gear caused by abrupt pitch down to compensate for high flare.

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5.17.1.2.2. Stall if flare continued with excess altitude.

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5.17.1.2.3. Hard landing due to high sink rates as airspeed decreases at higher than normal altitude.

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5.17.1.3. Recovery.

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5.17.1.3.1. With adequate airspeed and runway remaining, release a small amount of back stick pressure to increase descent rate. As aircraft approaches normal altitude, increase back stick pressure to reestablish normal flare.

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5.17.1.3.2. If in a landing attitude and excess altitude would require an abrupt pitch change (end swap) to land, do not attempt landing, and initiate a go-around. Remember, as landing attitude is attained, the aircraft is rapidly approaching a stall and there is insufficient margin of error for radical pitch changes in the flare.

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5.17.2. Late and Rapid Roundout.

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5.17.2.1. Cause. Higher than expected descent rate or misjudged altitude.

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5.17.2.2. Effects. Possible incomplete flare, ballooned flare, or hard touchdown.

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5.17.2.2.1. Firm touchdown due to higher than normal descent rates or insufficient time to complete flare.

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5.17.2.2.2. Abrupt or rapid roundout to prevent premature or firm touchdown may lead to an accelerated stall. This is a dangerous situation that may cause an extremely hard landing and damage to the main gear. This may or may not be a controllable situation, depending on airspeed.

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5.17.2.2.3. No Flap patterns are especially susceptible to rapid/late round outs resulting in a tail strike due to the increased pitch required on final and reduced lift from the wings. Pilots flying steeper, low torque no-flap finals should use caution and avoid setting a pitch attitude higher than takeoff pitch picture (7-10 degrees NH).

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5.17.2.3. Recovery. Immediately position the controls to attain the takeoff attitude, simultaneously advance the PCL to MAX, and initiate a go-around. The main gear may contact the ground a second time, but if recovered properly, the second contact is usually moderate or less.

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5.17.3. Porpoising.

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5.17.3.1. Cause. Incorrect landing attitude and airspeed. At touchdown, the nose gear contacts the runway before the main gear.

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5.17.3.2. Effects. The aircraft bounces back and forth between the nose gear and main gear. Without immediate corrective action, the porpoise progresses to a violent, unstable pitch oscillation. Repeated heavy impacts on the runway ultimately cause structural damage to the landing gear, airframe, and propeller.

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5.17.3.3. Recovery.

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5.17.3.3.1. Immediately position the controls to the takeoff attitude to prevent the nose wheel from contacting the runway, simultaneously advance the PCL to MAX, and initiate a go-around.

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5.17.3.3.2. Do not attempt to counteract each bounce with opposite control stick movement. The combined reaction time of pilot and aircraft is such that this control movement aggravates the porpoise. Hold the controls in the recovery position to dampen the oscillations. Power increases control effectiveness by increasing airspeed.

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5.17.3.3.3. Do not raise the landing gear after a porpoise. Structural damage may prevent normal gear operation.

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5.17.4. Floating.

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5.17.4.1. Cause. Late power reduction, excessive airspeed, or improper flap setting.

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5.17.4.2. Effects. Long landing. Possible balloon or bounce.

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5.17.4.3. Recovery. Dependent on magnitude of float and runway remaining.

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5.17.4.3.1. For a slight float, airspeed permitting, gradually increase pitch attitude as airspeed decreases and landing speed is approached.

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5.17.4.3.2. Avoid prolonged floating, especially in strong crosswinds. If a long landing is inevitable, initiate a go-around.

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5.17.5. Ballooning.

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5.17.5.1. Cause. Rapid roundout or flare. Raising the nose to the landing attitude before lift has decreased sufficiently.

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5.17.5.2. Effects. Altitude gain (dependent on airspeed and pitch rate).

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5.17.5.3. Recovery.

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5.17.5.3.1. Landing may be completed from a slight balloon. Hold landing attitude as the aircraft settles to runway. Maintain wing-low crosswind controls through the balloon and landing.

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5.17.5.3.2. Go-around from a pronounced balloon. A pronounced balloon would cause the aircraft to increase altitude and decelerate. These can lead to high sinking flares due to low airspeed, higher altitude, higher AOA, potential stick shaker probably ending in a hard landing. Do not attempt to salvage the landing.

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5.17.6. Bouncing.

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5.17.6.1. Causes.

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5.17.6.1.1. Firm or hard touchdown causes the aircraft to bounce off runway.

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5.17.6.1.2. Contact with ground before landing attitude is attained.

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5.17.6.1.3. Late recognition that aircraft is settling too fast, combined with excessive back stick pressure.

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5.17.6.2. Effects. Height reached depends on the force with which the aircraft strikes the runway, the amount of back stick pressure held, and the speed at touchdown.

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5.17.6.3. Recovery. Same as a balloon, depending on severity of bounce.

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5.17.7. Slight Bounce. Continue the landing. Maintain direction with wing-low crosswind controls and smoothly adjust pitch to the landing attitude just before touchdown.

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5.17.8. Severe Bounce (Aircraft Rising Rapidly). Do not attempt a landing from a significant bounce, go-around immediately.

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5.17.8.1. Simultaneously apply MAX power, maintain direction, and lower nose to a safe pitch attitude.

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5.17.8.2. Continue go-around even if another bounce occurs.

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5.17.8.3. Leave the landing gear extended if a hard landing is encountered.

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5.17.9. Bouncing in Crosswinds. Use extreme caution. When one wheel strikes the runway, the other wheel touches down immediately after. The crosswind correction is lost and the aircraft drifts. Reestablish crosswind controls to stop the drift and either continue the landing or go-around, depending on the situation.

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5.17.10. Landing in a Drift or Crab. Aircraft contacts the runway in a crab or drifting sideways. Throughout final, flare, and touchdown, in a crosswind, the aircraft should track in a straight line down the runway. With wing-low crosswind controls, align the fuselage with the runway. Insufficient wing-low crosswind controls result in landing with a drift, in a crab, or a combination of both.

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5.17.10.1. Cause. Failure to apply sufficient wing-low crosswind corrections.

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5.17.10.2. Effects. Excessive side loads on landing gear and potential gear damage.

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5.17.10.3. Recovery. Go-around if unable to apply proper crosswind controls before touchdown.

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5.17.11. Wing Rising After Touchdown.

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5.17.11.1. Cause. Lift differential combined with rolling moment. During crosswind landing, air flow is greater on the upwind wing because the fuselage reduces air flow over the downwind wing. This causes a lift differential. The wind also strikes the fuselage on the upwind side, and this causes a rolling moment about the longitudinal axis which may further assist in raising the upwind wing. When effects of these two factors are great enough, one wing may rise even though directional control is maintained.

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5.17.11.2. Effect. Depending on the amount of crosswind and degree of corrective action, directional control could be lost. If no correction is applied, one wing can raise enough to cause the other wing to strike the ground.

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5.17.11.3. Recovery. Use ailerons to keep the wings level. Use rudder and (or) asymmetric braking to maintain directional control. Ailerons are more effective if applied immediately. As the wing rises, the effect increases as more wing area is exposed to the crosswind.

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